Disease ecology and pathogeography: Changing the focus to better interpret and anticipate complex environment–host–pathogen interactions DOI Creative Commons

Jean‐François Guégan,

Timothée Poisot, Barbara A. Han

et al.

Ecography, Journal Year: 2024, Volume and Issue: 2024(10)

Published: Oct. 1, 2024

Over the past 15 years, disease ecology has become a discipline in its own right. It is fundamentally based on training and evolution, with solid theoretical foundations skills computational biology statistics, it differs from medical approach to interpretation of disease. concerned how species interactions, including host–pathogen relationships environmental conditions (e.g. temperature rainfall), affect patterns processes presence spread, pathogens impact host individuals, populations, communities, ultimately ecosystem function (Ostfeld et al. 2008). Initially rooted parasite ecology, particularly among researchers working transmission cycles host–disease population dynamics, mainly focuses parasitic infectious diseases but not exclusive them 2018). A booming subfield currently concerns research linking different areas such as transmission, agriculture development, development aid policies, notably world's poorest countries (Ngonghala 2014). Unlike ecologists, ecologists focus understanding causes consequences maintenance animal species, humans, plants, communities species. much more widespread studies wild also their contacts domestic e.g. livestock, interactions human less so plant which some respects are plant-pathology molecular-orientated (Guégan 2023a). We cannot say that involved gradual integration several distinct lines inquiry because heir ecology. an ecosystem-based takes into account natural complexity (Johnson 2015, Hassell 2021, Petrone 2023); develops experimental methods laboratory or mesocosms essential background statistical mathematical analysis. The spatial scales study local and, depending questions posed, can extend most global (Guernier 2004, Jones 2008, Allen 2017, Carlson 2022). In temporal domain, these be daily weekly multi-decadal investigations, dynamics (Keeling Rohani 2007). By definition, large scales. integrates levels life organization, i.e. genes ecosystem, case, only limited extent, veterinary approaches (Ezenwa 2015). however, gained confidence other disciplines, ones, now published top-leading generalist journals (Mahon 2024, Pfenning-Butterworth Chevillon 2024). Today, challenging established dogmas medicine, reconsidering aspects in-depth, raising question possible larger spectra, questioning origin nature pathogen virulence (Chevillon happy present this special issue journal Ecography. At least two contributions recently Ecography could have contributed Both constitute remarkable illustrations macro-scale host–parasite interactions. They are: Latitudinal distributions richness, phylogenetic diversity functional fleas small mammalian hosts four geographic quadrants by Krasnov colleagues (Krasnov Continental-scale climatic gradients pathogenic microbial taxa birds bats Xu coauthors (Xu 2023). As illustrated sections issue, highly interdisciplinary field, drawing molecular genetics, immunology, epidemiology, time-series biostatistics, ecological epidemiological modeling. approach, often distribution, intensity another angle, wish propose surveillance, control, innovative sometimes breakthrough, line observations made. summary, papers we illustrate diverse scientific work confirm significant growth international landscape. Climate change accepted important driver emergence spread for wildlife, animals (Mora However, there considerable controversy whether climate operates directly (Franklinos 2019, Casadevall 2020) intervenes indirectly exacerbating prevailing environmental, socioeconomic, political 2023b). disease–biogeography field observations, entitled linked vampire bat expansion rabies virus spillover, Van de Vuurst collaborators (Van 2023) report impacts warming distributional range common bat, Desmodus rotundus, across Americas over last century. Through cogent correlation-based analysis, authors document vampire-borne outbreaks cattle herds 50 years period. results presented here numerous cases livestock continent while situating macroecological dimension pathogeography perspective (Murray Then, Garcia-Carrasco article, Present future situation West Nile Afro-Palaearctic pathogeographic system (Garcia-Carrasco 2024), analyze sensitive weather change. This transmitted insect vectors, genus Culex, hosted wide bird making zoonotic conditions. Using machine learning fuzzy logic model effects scenarios 2040 2070, evaluates risk biogeographic regions, Afrotropical Western Paleartic. Afro-Paleartic land masses experience upsurges epizootic epidemic virus, central northern European regions at notable beyond current distribution range. confirms broader comparative spillover context shifts (Carlson Next, Aliaga Samanez colleagues, article aggravating dengue yellow fever (Aliaga-Samanez diseases, severe considering first time urban sylvatic non-primate hosts, identify where favourability viral agents warming. viruses spilled were translocated many opening path spillback onto (Santos Abreu 2022, Tuells 2022) DENV-2 serotype (Hanley same methodological framework previous studies, they obtain projections show increase 10% 7% fever, providing details subregions particular each Furthermore, pathogeographical discussed light both vector non-human primates' geographical potential shifts. Projections within relevant since changes disrupt equilibria reservoirs, populations. These three examples application biogeography tools assess anticipate spread. Human activities modify, either indirectly, environments take place (Lindahl Grace 2015), leading encounters reservoirs (Rhyan Spraker 2010) complex multi-species systems (Hassell 2017). section, contributors Special Issue investigate habitat alterations loss reshape emergence. Among drivers biodiversity share, use features prominently. contribution, García-Peña Rubio (2024) non-pathogenic New World Hantaviruses (NWH) respond disturbances alongside continent-wide gradient going primary forest agriculture. multivariate suggest prevalence increased rangelands agricultural landscapes, corroborating exploring rodent (Ecke Increased chances encountering NWH lands ongoing reconversion cropland, Brazilian Amazon (Morton 2006), may burden Remarkably, analysis highlights hotspot Canada, prediction well-supported in, example, case records infections humans Sin Nombre 1993 (Warner 2020). degradation will is, likewise, core contribution (Heckley meta-analysis neotropical seroprevalence, examine various classes (including loss) infection dynamics. Although sampling biases led over-representation data D. rotundus (see 2023 issue), highest prevalences (above 50%) observed greatest extents year before sampling. Identifying causal mechanisms critical accurate (Plowright Mahon strength Heckley (2023) diffuse be, even relatively well-described (bats Neotropics). One explanation seasonal (Kessler 2018) profoundly landscape experience, intra-annual variations captured significantly amount data. Teitelbaum look waterfowl interact poultry farms shape avian influenza. used (GPS individual scale 400 individuals ten species) offer high-resolution view space, time, taxonomy; allows developing appreciation influenza very fine scale. Different habitats provided rates, day/night changes. Coupled abundance prevalence, (multiplicative) between factors substantial risk, homogeneous environment California's Central Valley. highlight challenges alteration associated Because (and interactions) play out heterogeneous space required draw general conclusions remains main obstacle. Advances Earth Observation through, remote sensing availability GPS collars likely provide good generalize our coming years. inherent host–symbiont Indeed, microbe cause without (Casadevall Pirofski Still, interaction mediated maintain non-host abiotic biotic Disease one outcomes microbe, section proposes relationships. Clark Aggregation symbionts depends type traits analyzes aggregation barnacle–limpet gill helminth–poecilid fish associations (Clark parasites near-universal pattern, stability (Morrill contributing always been pillar parasitological precursor what would high-performance biostatistical methods, feature (McVinish Lester 2020, Blomberg 2021). null models systems, barnacles limpets mirrors random partitioning, variation sites limpet body size. Differently, helminth worms populations aggregated than expected chance, decreasing conclude stochastic do explain help observations. second study, Pinheiro describe latitudinal specialization set bird-malarial networks conform rule higher specialized towards equator (Pinheiro biomes temperate tropical South America, host-parasite pairs network connectedness, increases lower latitude, quantitative specialization, frequencies relatedness, opposite, decreases. Overall, indicates that, near equator, despite fact malarial lineage parasitizes restricted available evenly distributed regions. addition strong arguments against hypothesis about echoes recent explanations concerning Southern America (Thoisy contributes tradition conducting better understand essence, origin, balance, imbalance processes, humans. Sundaram collaborators' examines Ebola sub-Saharan Africa, adopting (Sundaram Instead exclusively targeting frugivorous bats, suspected active reservoir investigates role multiple primates, fruiting tree suitability, biometeorological parameters driving outbreaks. sophisticated phylogenetically-based analyses comparing plausible scenarios, concludes suitability Ficus trees Cercopithecus monkeys area. guilds, mammals, plus Pteropodid indicators circulation risk. Recent (Pleydell 2024) highlighted importance phenology ecosystems face. goes simply observing readily visible, demonstrates. third investigation, Wallén Consequences repeated sarcoptic mange endangered mammal (Wallén Parasites major influencing (Hudson 2002, Keesing 2010). Scandinavian arctic fox, Vulpes lagopus, showing fragmented suffering inter-species competition, prey scarcity, genetic inbreeding pathogens. mange, caused Sarcoptes scabiei, responsible artic fox metapopulation, introduced few red specimens. Sarcoptic demography reproductive output. demonstrates implementation non-invasive treatment V. scabiei effective, short-term, spatially overlapping (e.g., see Haydon 2006 illustration). part Hjermann Individual movement alpine reindeer implications management (Hjermann GPS-marked chronic wasting behaviour Research movements health scarce (Calenge attempts re-establish situation. extensive individual-based dataset surveyed Norwegian infected fatal prion causing shows rut season favors male home ranges, greater overlaps shorter distance males, males females. facilitate individual-to-individual agent, measures prevent excessively high rates affecting survival suggested. aims adequate surveillance wildlife affected reconcile agenda final deals plant–pathogen space. Tree pests threat (Freer-Smith Webber 2017) cascading broad services (Boyd 2013). factor maintaining food security (Flood broadly (Hulme 2020), articles conversation biogeography. Climatic variability, heterogeneity drive structure Phytophthora ramorum epidemiology Sudden Oak Death, Kozanitas Death under joint variation, heterogeneity, turnover. Primarily Quercus genus, through mostly unaffected host, California Bay laurel. interesting challenge pathogen, predictors involves (here, precipitation determinant) ones (the transmissive host). specific plants resembles similar like Cryptococcus complex, shaped variables composition (Mak 2010, Caballol cover conceptual ground manuscript Climate, ontogeny structural specificity determine regional scale, consider (Dothistroma pini Diplodia sapinea) jointly (Pinus nigra) climate. additive (on defoliation), no evidence competition adult trees. Environmental manifested itself changing had largest mortality; Dothistroma resulted seedling mortality cold moist areas, dry, warm areas. responses, differ micro-habitat stages. combination marked region: was regulated bioclimatic conditions, though widely distributed. intriguing observation, need coinfection outcome determined) Contrasting beekeeping plant–pollinator Mediterranean semiarid ecosystems, Martínez-López interactive pollinators, novel Vairimorpha ceranae. ceranae during pollination (Zbrozek lead secondary bacterial Serratia (Braglia studied, predictive varies considerably year. tended effect weakly significant. Yet, observation should investigations dilution effects. striking takeaway apparent once delay considered; emphasizes collection re-survey sites/communities capture evolved establishing evolution. underscores evolutionary emphasizing intricate pathogens, environments. herein reflect growing characterizes modern spanning topics change, alteration, interplay processes. insights warranting further exploration. Future prioritize integrating advanced predict Such benefit longitudinal tracking identifying trends informing practices. Embracing combines biology, modeling enhance foster solutions control health, instance, advancing biodiversity's resilience. Interdisciplinary thinking applied human–wildlife interface (social science, epidemiology) mitigating risks increasingly habitats. Health geography fortiori disease, suffered 30 medicine. world speak finding spurious correlations, medicine convincing compared gold standard cohort studies. heart discrepancy lies subject scales, scale-dependency, science general. Several developed estimate biologically (Pease (Becker 2019; Halliday Liu Temporal and/or varying remain largely untested empirical debate around illustrative this. Disease–biodiversity reveal contrary parameters, categories, types strongly depend interest, best explained measured available, obtained, Elton's sound (Chavy 2019 illustration leishmaniasis southern America). collected attitude exist quasi-absent when meteorological data, dominate. encourage avenue order elucidate tri-trophic deciphering drivers. understood, taught schools, interpreted disciplines reticent still too hegemonic, process aiding public efforts worldwide. poised continued visible every observable advances driven action address diseases. state knowledge sets stage unravel web define – supported NSF-NIH-NIFA Ecology Evolution Infectious program (DEB no. 1911457) JFG (NIFA 1211-1143-00-A, DEB 2308273) BAH. benefited 'Investissement d'Avenir' grant managed Agence Nationale la Recherche (LABEX CEBA: ANR-10-LABX-25-01). Institut pour le Développement (IRD), national recherches l'agriculture, l'alimentation l'environnement (INRAE), Centre National Scientifique (CNRS), Université Montpellier (UM) Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Santé Publique (EHESP). TP funding Verena (viralemergence.org) U.S. Science Foundation, NSF BII 2021909 2213854, Data discretionary award Wellcome Trust (223764/Z/21/Z). aware any affiliations, memberships, funding, financial holdings might perceived objectivity editorial article. declare competing interests. content sole responsibility authors, played agencies.

Language: Английский

Tracking the Pathways of West Nile Virus: Phylogenetic and Phylogeographic Analysis of a 2024 Isolate from Portugal DOI Creative Commons

Diogo Maroco,

Ricardo Parreira, Fábio A. Abade dos Santos

et al.

Microorganisms, Journal Year: 2025, Volume and Issue: 13(3), P. 585 - 585

Published: March 4, 2025

Birds are natural hosts for numerous zoonotic viral pathogens, including West Nile virus, which is transmitted by mosquitoes. During migration, birds can act as vectors the geographic spread of viruses. WNV endemic in Portugal, causing annual outbreaks, particularly horses. Here, we report first detection an avian strain isolated from a wild bird (Astur gentilis) collected Portugal mid-September 2024. Phylogenetic and phylogeographic analyses were conducted to trace virus’s origin potential transmission routes, integrating obtained full-length genomic sequence with dataset strains Africa Europe (1951–2024). analysis 92 sequences spanning lineages 1–5 positioned 2024 isolate within lineage 1a. Results using phylodynamics-based showed that this likely originated reached via Spain’s Cádiz coast, confirming previously described dispersal patterns between Europe. The data suggest migratory route Europe, extending through countries such Senegal, Mauritania, Morocco, Spain, Italy, France, indicating reciprocal flow virus back into Africa. These routes match paths Afro-Palearctic species, emphasizing role long-distance WNV.

Language: Английский

Citations

0
Disease ecology and pathogeography: Changing the focus to better interpret and anticipate complex environment–host–pathogen interactions DOI Creative Commons

Jean‐François Guégan,

Timothée Poisot, Barbara A. Han

et al.

Ecography, Journal Year: 2024, Volume and Issue: 2024(10)

Published: Oct. 1, 2024

Over the past 15 years, disease ecology has become a discipline in its own right. It is fundamentally based on training and evolution, with solid theoretical foundations skills computational biology statistics, it differs from medical approach to interpretation of disease. concerned how species interactions, including host–pathogen relationships environmental conditions (e.g. temperature rainfall), affect patterns processes presence spread, pathogens impact host individuals, populations, communities, ultimately ecosystem function (Ostfeld et al. 2008). Initially rooted parasite ecology, particularly among researchers working transmission cycles host–disease population dynamics, mainly focuses parasitic infectious diseases but not exclusive them 2018). A booming subfield currently concerns research linking different areas such as transmission, agriculture development, development aid policies, notably world's poorest countries (Ngonghala 2014). Unlike ecologists, ecologists focus understanding causes consequences maintenance animal species, humans, plants, communities species. much more widespread studies wild also their contacts domestic e.g. livestock, interactions human less so plant which some respects are plant-pathology molecular-orientated (Guégan 2023a). We cannot say that involved gradual integration several distinct lines inquiry because heir ecology. an ecosystem-based takes into account natural complexity (Johnson 2015, Hassell 2021, Petrone 2023); develops experimental methods laboratory or mesocosms essential background statistical mathematical analysis. The spatial scales study local and, depending questions posed, can extend most global (Guernier 2004, Jones 2008, Allen 2017, Carlson 2022). In temporal domain, these be daily weekly multi-decadal investigations, dynamics (Keeling Rohani 2007). By definition, large scales. integrates levels life organization, i.e. genes ecosystem, case, only limited extent, veterinary approaches (Ezenwa 2015). however, gained confidence other disciplines, ones, now published top-leading generalist journals (Mahon 2024, Pfenning-Butterworth Chevillon 2024). Today, challenging established dogmas medicine, reconsidering aspects in-depth, raising question possible larger spectra, questioning origin nature pathogen virulence (Chevillon happy present this special issue journal Ecography. At least two contributions recently Ecography could have contributed Both constitute remarkable illustrations macro-scale host–parasite interactions. They are: Latitudinal distributions richness, phylogenetic diversity functional fleas small mammalian hosts four geographic quadrants by Krasnov colleagues (Krasnov Continental-scale climatic gradients pathogenic microbial taxa birds bats Xu coauthors (Xu 2023). As illustrated sections issue, highly interdisciplinary field, drawing molecular genetics, immunology, epidemiology, time-series biostatistics, ecological epidemiological modeling. approach, often distribution, intensity another angle, wish propose surveillance, control, innovative sometimes breakthrough, line observations made. summary, papers we illustrate diverse scientific work confirm significant growth international landscape. Climate change accepted important driver emergence spread for wildlife, animals (Mora However, there considerable controversy whether climate operates directly (Franklinos 2019, Casadevall 2020) intervenes indirectly exacerbating prevailing environmental, socioeconomic, political 2023b). disease–biogeography field observations, entitled linked vampire bat expansion rabies virus spillover, Van de Vuurst collaborators (Van 2023) report impacts warming distributional range common bat, Desmodus rotundus, across Americas over last century. Through cogent correlation-based analysis, authors document vampire-borne outbreaks cattle herds 50 years period. results presented here numerous cases livestock continent while situating macroecological dimension pathogeography perspective (Murray Then, Garcia-Carrasco article, Present future situation West Nile Afro-Palaearctic pathogeographic system (Garcia-Carrasco 2024), analyze sensitive weather change. This transmitted insect vectors, genus Culex, hosted wide bird making zoonotic conditions. Using machine learning fuzzy logic model effects scenarios 2040 2070, evaluates risk biogeographic regions, Afrotropical Western Paleartic. Afro-Paleartic land masses experience upsurges epizootic epidemic virus, central northern European regions at notable beyond current distribution range. confirms broader comparative spillover context shifts (Carlson Next, Aliaga Samanez colleagues, article aggravating dengue yellow fever (Aliaga-Samanez diseases, severe considering first time urban sylvatic non-primate hosts, identify where favourability viral agents warming. viruses spilled were translocated many opening path spillback onto (Santos Abreu 2022, Tuells 2022) DENV-2 serotype (Hanley same methodological framework previous studies, they obtain projections show increase 10% 7% fever, providing details subregions particular each Furthermore, pathogeographical discussed light both vector non-human primates' geographical potential shifts. Projections within relevant since changes disrupt equilibria reservoirs, populations. These three examples application biogeography tools assess anticipate spread. Human activities modify, either indirectly, environments take place (Lindahl Grace 2015), leading encounters reservoirs (Rhyan Spraker 2010) complex multi-species systems (Hassell 2017). section, contributors Special Issue investigate habitat alterations loss reshape emergence. Among drivers biodiversity share, use features prominently. contribution, García-Peña Rubio (2024) non-pathogenic New World Hantaviruses (NWH) respond disturbances alongside continent-wide gradient going primary forest agriculture. multivariate suggest prevalence increased rangelands agricultural landscapes, corroborating exploring rodent (Ecke Increased chances encountering NWH lands ongoing reconversion cropland, Brazilian Amazon (Morton 2006), may burden Remarkably, analysis highlights hotspot Canada, prediction well-supported in, example, case records infections humans Sin Nombre 1993 (Warner 2020). degradation will is, likewise, core contribution (Heckley meta-analysis neotropical seroprevalence, examine various classes (including loss) infection dynamics. Although sampling biases led over-representation data D. rotundus (see 2023 issue), highest prevalences (above 50%) observed greatest extents year before sampling. Identifying causal mechanisms critical accurate (Plowright Mahon strength Heckley (2023) diffuse be, even relatively well-described (bats Neotropics). One explanation seasonal (Kessler 2018) profoundly landscape experience, intra-annual variations captured significantly amount data. Teitelbaum look waterfowl interact poultry farms shape avian influenza. used (GPS individual scale 400 individuals ten species) offer high-resolution view space, time, taxonomy; allows developing appreciation influenza very fine scale. Different habitats provided rates, day/night changes. Coupled abundance prevalence, (multiplicative) between factors substantial risk, homogeneous environment California's Central Valley. highlight challenges alteration associated Because (and interactions) play out heterogeneous space required draw general conclusions remains main obstacle. Advances Earth Observation through, remote sensing availability GPS collars likely provide good generalize our coming years. inherent host–symbiont Indeed, microbe cause without (Casadevall Pirofski Still, interaction mediated maintain non-host abiotic biotic Disease one outcomes microbe, section proposes relationships. Clark Aggregation symbionts depends type traits analyzes aggregation barnacle–limpet gill helminth–poecilid fish associations (Clark parasites near-universal pattern, stability (Morrill contributing always been pillar parasitological precursor what would high-performance biostatistical methods, feature (McVinish Lester 2020, Blomberg 2021). null models systems, barnacles limpets mirrors random partitioning, variation sites limpet body size. Differently, helminth worms populations aggregated than expected chance, decreasing conclude stochastic do explain help observations. second study, Pinheiro describe latitudinal specialization set bird-malarial networks conform rule higher specialized towards equator (Pinheiro biomes temperate tropical South America, host-parasite pairs network connectedness, increases lower latitude, quantitative specialization, frequencies relatedness, opposite, decreases. Overall, indicates that, near equator, despite fact malarial lineage parasitizes restricted available evenly distributed regions. addition strong arguments against hypothesis about echoes recent explanations concerning Southern America (Thoisy contributes tradition conducting better understand essence, origin, balance, imbalance processes, humans. Sundaram collaborators' examines Ebola sub-Saharan Africa, adopting (Sundaram Instead exclusively targeting frugivorous bats, suspected active reservoir investigates role multiple primates, fruiting tree suitability, biometeorological parameters driving outbreaks. sophisticated phylogenetically-based analyses comparing plausible scenarios, concludes suitability Ficus trees Cercopithecus monkeys area. guilds, mammals, plus Pteropodid indicators circulation risk. Recent (Pleydell 2024) highlighted importance phenology ecosystems face. goes simply observing readily visible, demonstrates. third investigation, Wallén Consequences repeated sarcoptic mange endangered mammal (Wallén Parasites major influencing (Hudson 2002, Keesing 2010). Scandinavian arctic fox, Vulpes lagopus, showing fragmented suffering inter-species competition, prey scarcity, genetic inbreeding pathogens. mange, caused Sarcoptes scabiei, responsible artic fox metapopulation, introduced few red specimens. Sarcoptic demography reproductive output. demonstrates implementation non-invasive treatment V. scabiei effective, short-term, spatially overlapping (e.g., see Haydon 2006 illustration). part Hjermann Individual movement alpine reindeer implications management (Hjermann GPS-marked chronic wasting behaviour Research movements health scarce (Calenge attempts re-establish situation. extensive individual-based dataset surveyed Norwegian infected fatal prion causing shows rut season favors male home ranges, greater overlaps shorter distance males, males females. facilitate individual-to-individual agent, measures prevent excessively high rates affecting survival suggested. aims adequate surveillance wildlife affected reconcile agenda final deals plant–pathogen space. Tree pests threat (Freer-Smith Webber 2017) cascading broad services (Boyd 2013). factor maintaining food security (Flood broadly (Hulme 2020), articles conversation biogeography. Climatic variability, heterogeneity drive structure Phytophthora ramorum epidemiology Sudden Oak Death, Kozanitas Death under joint variation, heterogeneity, turnover. Primarily Quercus genus, through mostly unaffected host, California Bay laurel. interesting challenge pathogen, predictors involves (here, precipitation determinant) ones (the transmissive host). specific plants resembles similar like Cryptococcus complex, shaped variables composition (Mak 2010, Caballol cover conceptual ground manuscript Climate, ontogeny structural specificity determine regional scale, consider (Dothistroma pini Diplodia sapinea) jointly (Pinus nigra) climate. additive (on defoliation), no evidence competition adult trees. Environmental manifested itself changing had largest mortality; Dothistroma resulted seedling mortality cold moist areas, dry, warm areas. responses, differ micro-habitat stages. combination marked region: was regulated bioclimatic conditions, though widely distributed. intriguing observation, need coinfection outcome determined) Contrasting beekeeping plant–pollinator Mediterranean semiarid ecosystems, Martínez-López interactive pollinators, novel Vairimorpha ceranae. ceranae during pollination (Zbrozek lead secondary bacterial Serratia (Braglia studied, predictive varies considerably year. tended effect weakly significant. Yet, observation should investigations dilution effects. striking takeaway apparent once delay considered; emphasizes collection re-survey sites/communities capture evolved establishing evolution. underscores evolutionary emphasizing intricate pathogens, environments. herein reflect growing characterizes modern spanning topics change, alteration, interplay processes. insights warranting further exploration. Future prioritize integrating advanced predict Such benefit longitudinal tracking identifying trends informing practices. Embracing combines biology, modeling enhance foster solutions control health, instance, advancing biodiversity's resilience. Interdisciplinary thinking applied human–wildlife interface (social science, epidemiology) mitigating risks increasingly habitats. Health geography fortiori disease, suffered 30 medicine. world speak finding spurious correlations, medicine convincing compared gold standard cohort studies. heart discrepancy lies subject scales, scale-dependency, science general. Several developed estimate biologically (Pease (Becker 2019; Halliday Liu Temporal and/or varying remain largely untested empirical debate around illustrative this. Disease–biodiversity reveal contrary parameters, categories, types strongly depend interest, best explained measured available, obtained, Elton's sound (Chavy 2019 illustration leishmaniasis southern America). collected attitude exist quasi-absent when meteorological data, dominate. encourage avenue order elucidate tri-trophic deciphering drivers. understood, taught schools, interpreted disciplines reticent still too hegemonic, process aiding public efforts worldwide. poised continued visible every observable advances driven action address diseases. state knowledge sets stage unravel web define – supported NSF-NIH-NIFA Ecology Evolution Infectious program (DEB no. 1911457) JFG (NIFA 1211-1143-00-A, DEB 2308273) BAH. benefited 'Investissement d'Avenir' grant managed Agence Nationale la Recherche (LABEX CEBA: ANR-10-LABX-25-01). Institut pour le Développement (IRD), national recherches l'agriculture, l'alimentation l'environnement (INRAE), Centre National Scientifique (CNRS), Université Montpellier (UM) Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Santé Publique (EHESP). TP funding Verena (viralemergence.org) U.S. Science Foundation, NSF BII 2021909 2213854, Data discretionary award Wellcome Trust (223764/Z/21/Z). aware any affiliations, memberships, funding, financial holdings might perceived objectivity editorial article. declare competing interests. content sole responsibility authors, played agencies.

Language: Английский

Citations

1