Science Immunology,
Journal Year:
2025,
Volume and Issue:
10(104)
Published: Feb. 14, 2025
Vaccines
deliver
an
immunogen
in
a
manner
designed
to
safely
provoke
immune
response,
leading
the
generation
of
memory
T
and
B
cells
long-lived
antibody-producing
plasma
cells.
Adjuvants
play
critical
role
vaccines
by
controlling
how
system
is
exposed
providing
inflammatory
cues
that
enable
productive
priming.
However,
mechanisms
action
underlying
adjuvant
function
at
molecular,
cell,
tissue
levels
are
diverse
often
poorly
understood.
Here,
we
review
current
understanding
adjuvants
used
subunit
protein/polysaccharide
mRNA
vaccines,
discuss
where
possible
these
link
downstream
effects
on
identify
knowledge
gaps
will
be
important
fill
order
continued
development
more
effective
for
challenging
pathogens
such
as
HIV
emerging
threats.
New England Journal of Medicine,
Journal Year:
2022,
Volume and Issue:
387(11), P. 1011 - 1020
Published: Aug. 31, 2022
T
he
coronavirus
disease
2019
(Covid-19)
pandemic
has
claimed
an
estimated
15
million
lives,
including
more
than
1
lives
in
the
United
States
alone.The
rapid
development
of
multiple
Covid-19
vaccines
been
a
triumph
biomedical
research,
and
billions
vaccine
doses
have
administered
worldwide.Challenges
facing
field
include
inequitable
distribution,
hesitancy,
waning
immunity,
emergence
highly
transmissible
viral
variants
that
partially
escape
antibodies.This
review
summarizes
current
state
knowledge
about
immune
responses
to
importance
both
humoral
cellular
immunity
for
durable
protection
against
severe
disease.
A
nti
v
ir
l
Immunit
yThe
system
is
broadly
divided
into
innate
adaptive
systems.Innate
are
first
line
defense
viruses
rapidly
triggered
when
pattern-recognition
receptors,
such
as
toll-like
recognize
pathogen-associated
molecular
patterns.Innate
antiviral
includes
secretion
type
I
interferons,
cytokines,
certain
responses,
neutrophils,
monocytes
macrophages,
dendritic
cells,
natural
killer
cells.
Adaptive
second
viruses,
involve
antigen-specific
recognition
epitopes.Adaptive
two
complementary
branches
system:
immunity.Humoral
acute
respiratory
syndrome
2
(SARS-CoV-2)
antibodies
bind
SARS-CoV-2
spike
protein
either
neutralize
virus
or
eliminate
it
through
other
effector
mechanisms.
2,3ellular
virus-specific
B
cells
which
provide
long-term
immunologic
memory
expand
on
reexposure
antigen.B
produce
antibodies,
CD8+
directly
virally
infected
CD4+
help
support
responses.5][6][7]
For
variant
largely
escapes
neutralizing
may
be
particularly
important
longterm
Immunological Reviews,
Journal Year:
2022,
Volume and Issue:
310(1), P. 6 - 26
Published: June 5, 2022
Antibodies
against
epitopes
in
S1
give
the
most
accurate
CoP
infection
by
SARS-CoV-2
coronavirus.
Measurement
of
those
antibodies
neutralization
or
binding
assays
both
have
predictive
value,
with
antibody
titers
giving
highest
statistical
correlation.
However,
protective
functions
are
multiple.
multiple
other
than
influence
efficacy.
The
role
cellular
responses
can
be
discerned
respect
to
CD4
Immunological Reviews,
Journal Year:
2022,
Volume and Issue:
310(1), P. 27 - 46
Published: June 22, 2022
Immunological
memory
is
the
basis
of
protective
immunity
provided
by
vaccines
and
previous
infections.
can
develop
from
multiple
branches
adaptive
immune
system,
including
CD4
T
cells,
CD8
B
long-lasting
antibody
responses.
Extraordinary
progress
has
been
made
in
understanding
to
SARS-CoV-2
infection
COVID-19
vaccines,
addressing
development;
quantitative
qualitative
features
different
cellular
anatomical
compartments;
durability
each
component
antibodies.
Given
sophistication
measurements;
size
human
studies;
use
longitudinal
samples
cross-sectional
head-to-head
comparisons
between
or
for
1
year
already
supersedes
that
any
other
acute
infectious
disease.
This
knowledge
may
help
inform
public
policies
regarding
as
well
scientific
development
future
against
diseases.
Science Immunology,
Journal Year:
2022,
Volume and Issue:
7(75)
Published: June 2, 2022
Omicron
is
the
evolutionarily
most
distinct
severe
acute
respiratory
syndrome
coronavirus
2
(SARS-CoV-2)
variant
of
concern
(VOC)
to
date.
We
report
that
BA.1
breakthrough
infection
in
BNT162b2-vaccinated
individuals
resulted
strong
neutralizing
activity
against
BA.1,
BA.2,
and
previous
SARS-CoV-2
VOCs
but
not
sublineages
BA.4
BA.5.
induced
a
robust
recall
response,
primarily
expanding
memory
B
(B
Science Immunology,
Journal Year:
2022,
Volume and Issue:
8(79)
Published: Dec. 22, 2022
RNA
vaccines
are
efficient
preventive
measures
to
combat
the
severe
acute
respiratory
syndrome
coronavirus
2
(SARS-CoV-2)
pandemic.
High
levels
of
neutralizing
SARS-CoV-2
antibodies
an
important
component
vaccine-induced
immunity.
Shortly
after
initial
two
mRNA
vaccine
doses,
immunoglobulin
G
(IgG)
response
mainly
consists
proinflammatory
subclasses
IgG1
and
IgG3.
Here,
we
report
that
several
months
second
vaccination,
SARS-CoV-2–specific
were
increasingly
composed
noninflammatory
IgG4,
which
further
boosted
by
a
third
vaccination
and/or
variant
breakthrough
infections.
IgG4
among
all
spike-specific
IgG
rose,
on
average,
from
0.04%
shortly
19.27%
late
vaccination.
This
induction
was
not
observed
homologous
or
heterologous
with
adenoviral
vectors.
Single-cell
sequencing
flow
cytometry
revealed
substantial
frequencies
IgG4-switched
B
cells
within
spike-binding
memory
cell
population
[median
14.4%;
interquartile
range
(IQR)
6.7
18.1%]
compared
overall
repertoire
(median
1.3%;
IQR
0.9
2.2%)
three
immunizations.
class
switch
associated
reduced
capacity
mediate
antibody-dependent
cellular
phagocytosis
complement
deposition.
Because
Fc-mediated
effector
functions
critical
for
antiviral
immunity,
these
findings
may
have
consequences
choice
timing
regimens
using
vaccines,
including
future
booster
immunizations
against
SARS-CoV-2.
