Safeguarding human health in the Anthropocene epoch: report of The Rockefeller Foundation–Lancet Commission on planetary health

The Lancet, Journal Year: 2015, Volume and Issue: 386(10007), P. 1973 - 2028

Published: July 16, 2015

Far-reaching changes to the structure and function of Earth's natural systems represent a growing threat human health. And yet, global health has mainly improved as these have gathered pace. What is explanation? As Commission, we are deeply concerned that explanation straightforward sobering: been mortgaging future generations realise economic development gains in present. By unsustainably exploiting nature's resources, civilisation flourished but now risks substantial effects from degradation life support future. Health environment including climatic change, ocean acidification, land degradation, water scarcity, overexploitation fisheries, biodiversity loss pose serious challenges past several decades likely become increasingly dominant during second half this century beyond. These striking trends driven by highly inequitable, inefficient, unsustainable patterns resource consumption technological development, together with population growth. We identify three categories be addressed maintain enhance face harmful environmental trends. Firstly, conceptual empathy failures (imagination challenges), such an over-reliance on gross domestic product measure progress, failure account for harms over present day gains, disproportionate effect those poor developing nations. Secondly, knowledge (research information address social drivers ill health, historical scarcity transdisciplinary research funding, unwillingness or inability deal uncertainty within decision making frameworks. Thirdly, implementation (governance how governments institutions delay recognition responses threats, especially when faced uncertainties, pooled common time lags between action effect. Although better evidence needed underpin appropriate policies than available at present, should not used excuse inaction. Substantial potential exists link reduce damage outcomes nations all levels development. This Commission identifies opportunities six key constituencies: professionals, funders academic community, UN Bretton Woods bodies, governments, investors corporate reporting civil society organisations. Depreciation capital subsidy accounted so economy nature falsely separated. Policies balance sustainability, economy. To world 9–10 billion people more, resilient food agricultural both undernutrition overnutrition, waste, diversify diets, minimise damage. Meeting need modern family planning can improve short term—eg, reduced maternal mortality pressures infrastructure. Planetary offers unprecedented opportunity advocacy national reforms taxes subsidies many sectors economy, energy, agriculture, water, Regional trade treaties act further incorporate protection near long term. Several essential steps taken transform planetary include reduction waste through creation products more durable require less energy materials manufacture often produced present; incentivisation recycling, reuse, repair; substitution hazardous safer alternatives. Key messages1The concept based understanding depend flourishing wise stewardship systems. However, being degraded extent history.2Environmental threats will characterised surprise uncertainty. Our societies clear potent dangers urgent transformative actions protect generations.3The governance organisation inadequate call aid integration social, economic, creation, synthesis, application interdisciplinary strengthen health.4Solutions lie reach redefinition prosperity focus enhancement quality delivery all, respect integrity endeavour necessitate change promoting sustainable equitable consumption, reducing growth, harnessing power technology change. 1The Despite limitations, Sustainable Development Goals provide great integrate sustainability judicious selection relevant indicators wellbeing, enabling infrastructure supporting systems, strong governance. The landscape, ecosystems, they contain managed indirectly, disease risk. Intact restored ecosystems contribute resilience (see panel 1 glossary terms report), example, coastal (eg, wave attenuation) ability floodplains greening river catchments flooding events diverting holding excess water.Panel 1GlossaryHolocene1International StratigraphyInternational stratigraphic chart.http://www.stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2013-01.pdfDate: 2013Google ScholarA geological epoch began about 11 700 years ago encompasses most period which humanity grown developed, its written history major civilisations.Anthropocene2Crutzen PJ Geology mankind.Nature. 2002; 415: 23Crossref PubMed Scopus (1931) Google ScholarThe proposed name new demarcated activities Anthropocene yet formally recognised dates put forward mark beginning.Ecosystem3Millennium Ecosystem AssessmentEcosystems wellbeing: synthesis.in: Corvalan C Hales S McMichael AJ Island Press, Washington DC2005Google dynamic complex plant, animal, microorganism communities non-living acting functional unit.Ecosystem services4UKNEAThe UK National Assessment: technical report. United Nations Environment Programme's World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK2011Google benefits provided possible worth living. Examples ecosystem services clean regulation floods, soil erosion, outbreaks, non-material recreational spiritual areas. term usually encompass tangible intangible beings obtain sometimes separated into goods services.Biodiversity5Millennium AssessmentBiodiversity.in: Mace G Masundire H Baillie J Millennium assessment: current state trends: findings condition working group well-being. Washington, ScholarAn abbreviation biological diversity; means variability among living organisms sources, inter alia, terrestrial, marine, other aquatic ecological complexes part. includes diversity species, ecosystems.Wetland6RamsarConvention wetlands international importance waterfowl habitat 1971. Iran, Feb 2, amended protocol Dec 3, 1982, amendments May 28, 1987.http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=15398&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.htmlGoogle Ramsar Convention defines “areas marsh, fen, peatland whether artificial, permanent temporary, static flowing, fresh, brackish salt, areas marine depth low tide does exceed metres”.Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP)7IPCCClimate 2013. Physical Science Basis Working Group I contribution fifth assessment report Intergovernmental Panel Climate Change. Cambridge University Change, New York, USA2013Google ScholarRCPs trajectories concentrations greenhouse gases atmosphere consistent range emissions. For Fifth Assessment Report scientific community defined set four RCPs. They identified their approximate total radiative forcing (ie, warming effect) year 2100 relative 1750. RCP 8·5 pathway very high gas emissions, emissions line trends.Social–ecological systems8Stockholm Resilience CentreResilience dictionary.http://www.stockholmresilience.org/21/research/what-is-resilience/resilience-dictionary.htmlDate: 2015Google ScholarNatural do exist without cannot totally isolation nature. truly interconnected coevolve across spatial temporal scales.REDD+9UN-REDD ProgrammeAbout REDD+.http://www.un-redd.org/aboutreddDate: ScholarReducing Emissions Deforestation Forest Degradation (REDD) tries assign financial value carbon stored trees help countries invest low-carbon paths REDD+ added conservation, management forests, forest stocks.Externalities10Buchanan JM Stubblebine WC Externality.Economica. 1962; 29: 371-384Crossref benefit cost affects individual who did choose incur cost.Circular economy11European CommissionTowards circular economy: zero programme Europe.http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52014DC0398Date: 2014Google model decouples growth finite resources. Circular keep use possible, allow recycling end products, eliminate waste.State shift12Rocha JC Biggs R Peterson GD Regime shifts: what why matter?.http://www.regimeshifts.org/datasets-resources/Date: ScholarLarge, lasting social–ecological impacts systems.Resilience8Stockholm Scholar, 13Rodin dividend: where things go wrong. PublicAffairs, York2014Google Scholar“the capacity any entity—an individual, organization, system—to prepare disruptions, recover shocks stresses, adapt grow disruptive experience.” Holocene1International Scholar A civilisations. Anthropocene2Crutzen beginning. Ecosystem3Millennium unit. services. Biodiversity5Millennium An ecosystems. Wetland6RamsarConvention metres”. Representative RCPs Social–ecological Natural scales. REDD+9UN-REDD Reducing stocks. Externalities10Buchanan cost. waste. State Large, Resilience8Stockholm “the urban populations emphasises environment, air pollution, increased physical activity, provision green space, prevent sprawl decrease magnitude heat islands. Transdisciplinary expansion. Present limitations action. In situations deliver win–win solutions co-benefits, rapid scale-up achieved if researchers move ahead assess solutions. Recent investments towards non-linear shifts important, absence predictability changes, efforts adaptation strategies remain priority. integrated surveillance collect rigorous socioeconomic, data periods early detection emerging outbreaks nutrition non-communicable burden. improvement risk communication policy makers public make evidence-informed decisions helped systematic reviews briefs. professionals role achievement health: advance tackling inequities, increasing Humanity stewarded successfully 21st addressing unacceptable inequities wealth limits Earth, generation knowledge, policies, decisive action, inspirational leadership. metrics, today history. Life expectancy soared 47 1950–1955, 69 2005–2010. Death rates children younger 5 age worldwide decreased substantially 214 per thousand live births 1950–1955 59 2005–2010.14You D Hug L Chen Y Wardlaw T Newby Levels child mortality. Inter-agency Child Mortality Estimation, 15Population Division Department Economic Social Affairs SecretariatWorld prospects: 2012 revision. Nations, York2013Crossref Human supremely successful, staging “great escape” extreme deprivation 250 years.16Deaton escape: wealth, origins inequality. Princeton Princeton2013Google number poverty fallen 0·7 30 years, despite increase 2 billion.17Olinto P Beegle K Sobrado Uematsu poor: poor, harder end, profile world's poor? Bank, DC2013Google escape accompanied unparalleled advances care, education, rights legislation, brought benefits, albeit inequitably, humanity. Humanity's progress supported biophysical atmosphere, oceans, important wetlands, tundra constant climate, air, recycle nutrients nitrogen phosphorus, regulate cycle, giving freshwater drinking sanitation.3Millennium land, seas, rivers, plants animals contain, also direct benefits—chiefly food, fuel, timber, medicinal compounds (figure 1). Alongside agriculture industry success, Earth sustenance, shelter, energy—underpinning expansion civilisation.18Sukhdev Wittmer Schröter-Schlaack et al.Mainstreaming economics nature: synthesis approach, conclusions recommendations TEEB. Economics Ecosystems Biodiversity, Geneva2010Google achieve nutrition, 7 required affecting vital ways relied throughout history.19DeFries Foley JA Asner GP Land-use choices: balancing needs function.Front Ecol Environ. 2004; 2: 249-257Crossref essence, traded off supportive regulating processes feed fuel development.20Bennett EM Gordon LJ Understanding relationships multiple services.Ecol Lett. 2009; 12: 1394-1404Crossref (1166) scale alteration difficult overstate 2). converted third ice-free desert-free surface planet cropland pasture25Foley Monfreda Ramankutty N Zaks share pie.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2007; 104: 12585-12586Crossref (75) annually roughly accessible appropriated use.22Steffen W Broadgate Deutsch Gaffney O Ludwig trajectory Anthropocene: acceleration.The Review. 2015; 81-98Crossref Since 2000, cut down 2·3 million km2 primary forest.26Hansen MC Potapov PV Moore al.High-resolution maps 21st-century cover change.Science. 2013; 342: 850-853Crossref (4290) About 90% monitored fisheries harvested at, beyond, maximum yield limits.27FAOThe aquaculture—opportunities challenges. Food Agriculture Organization, Rome2014Google quest control dammed 60% rivers,28World DamsDams development: framework decision-making.http://www.unep.org/dams/WCD/report/WCD_DAMS%20report.pdfDate: November, 2000Google 0·5 km river.29Lehner B Liermann CR Revenga mapping reservoirs dams river-flow management.Front 2011; 9: 494-502Crossref (0) driving species extinction rate 100 times observed fossil record30Pimm SL Jenkins CN Abell al.The extinction, distribution, protection.Science. 2014; 344: 1246752Crossref (1212) remaining decreasing number. 2014 Living Planet Report24WWFLiving 2014: spaces, places. Wide Fund Nature, Gland, Switzerland2014Google estimates vertebrate have, average, had sizes 45 years. gases—carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide—are highest least 800 000 years.7IPCCClimate consequence actions, determinant conditions, rise epoch, (panel 1).2Crutzen 2005, landmark study (MEA) estimated examined, purification 2).3Millennium authors MEA warned planet's sustain no longer granted”.31Millennium AssessmentLiving beyond our means. assets Statement Board.in: Board Assessment, 2006, published WHO quarter burden was attributable modifiable factors.32Prüss-Üstün Corvalán Preventing healthy environments. Towards estimate disease.

Language: Английский

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The Anthropocene: From Global Change to Planetary Stewardship

AMBIO, Journal Year: 2011, Volume and Issue: 40(7), P. 739 - 761

Published: Oct. 11, 2011

Language: Английский

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Landscape sustainability science: ecosystem services and human well-being in changing landscapes

Landscape Ecology, Journal Year: 2013, Volume and Issue: 28(6), P. 999 - 1023

Published: April 30, 2013

Language: Английский

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Principles for knowledge co-production in sustainability research

Nature Sustainability, Journal Year: 2020, Volume and Issue: 3(3), P. 182 - 190

Published: Jan. 20, 2020

Language: Английский

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Exploring connections among nature, biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human health and well-being: Opportunities to enhance health and biodiversity conservation

Ecosystem Services, Journal Year: 2015, Volume and Issue: 12, P. 1 - 15

Published: Jan. 7, 2015

We are at a key juncture in history where biodiversity loss is occurring daily and accelerating the face of population growth, climate change, rampant development. Simultaneously, we just beginning to appreciate wealth human health benefits that stem from experiencing nature biodiversity. Here assessed state knowledge on relationships between biodiversity, prepared comprehensive listing reported effects. found strong evidence linking with production ecosystem services exposure health, but many these studies were limited rigor often only correlative. Much less information available link health. However, some robust indicate microbial can improve specifically reducing certain allergic respiratory diseases. Overall, much more research needed mechanisms causation. Also re-envisioning land-use planning places well-being center new coalition ecologists, social scientists planners conduct develop policies promote interaction Improvements areas should enhance ecosystem, community, as well resilience.

Language: Английский

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Urban ecology and sustainability: The state-of-the-science and future directions

Landscape and Urban Planning, Journal Year: 2014, Volume and Issue: 125, P. 209 - 221

Published: March 4, 2014

Language: Английский

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Ecosystem Services in Biologically Diversified versus Conventional Farming Systems: Benefits, Externalities, and Trade-Offs

Ecology and Society, Journal Year: 2012, Volume and Issue: 17(4)

Published: Jan. 1, 2012

Kremen, C., and A. Miles. 2012. Ecosystem services in biologically diversified versus conventional farming systems: benefits, externalities, trade-offs Ecology Society 17(4): 40. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-05035-170440

Language: Английский

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Cultural Ecosystem Services: A Literature Review and Prospects for Future Research

Ecology and Society, Journal Year: 2013, Volume and Issue: 18(3)

Published: Jan. 1, 2013

Milcu, A. Ioana, J. Hanspach, D. Abson, and Fischer 2013. Cultural ecosystem services: a literature review prospects for future research . Ecology Society 18(3):44. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-05790-180344

Language: Английский

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Anthropogenic transformation of the terrestrial biosphere

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences, Journal Year: 2011, Volume and Issue: 369(1938), P. 1010 - 1035

Published: Jan. 31, 2011

Human populations and their use of land have transformed most the terrestrial biosphere into anthropogenic biomes (anthromes), causing a variety novel ecological patterns processes to emerge. To assess whether human directly altered sufficiently indicate that Earth system has entered new geological epoch, spatially explicit global estimates were analysed across Holocene for potential induce irreversible transformation biosphere. alteration been significant more than 8000 years. However, only in past century majority intensively used anthromes with predominantly processes. At present, even decline substantially or become far efficient, current extent, duration, type intensity ecosystems already irreversibly at levels sufficient leave an unambiguous record differing from any prior epoch. It remains be seen will sustained continue evolve.

Language: Английский

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Diversification practices reduce organic to conventional yield gap

Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences, Journal Year: 2014, Volume and Issue: 282(1799), P. 20141396 - 20141396

Published: Dec. 15, 2014

Agriculture today places great strains on biodiversity, soils, water and the atmosphere, these will be exacerbated if current trends in population growth, meat energy consumption, food waste continue. Thus, farming systems that are both highly productive minimize environmental harms critically needed. How organic agriculture may contribute to world production has been subject vigorous debate over past decade. Here, we revisit this topic comparing conventional yields with a new meta-dataset three times larger than previously used (115 studies containing more 1000 observations) hierarchical analytical framework can better account for heterogeneity structure data. We find only 19.2% (±3.7%) lower yields, smaller yield gap previous estimates. More importantly, entirely different effects of crop types management practices compared studies. For example, found no significant differences leguminous versus non-leguminous crops, perennials annuals or developed developing countries. Instead, novel result two agricultural diversification practices, multi-cropping rotations, substantially reduce (to 9 ± 4% 8 5%, respectively) when methods were applied systems. These promising results, based robust analysis meta-dataset, suggest appropriate investment agroecological research improve could greatly eliminate some crops regions.

Language: Английский

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